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Table 1 Summary of the markers used to analyze apoptotic phenotypes in protozoan parasites upon different death stimuli. Plasmodium falciparum data refer to erythrocyte stages in culture.

From: Apoptotic markers in protozoan parasites

Parasite

marker

Death stimulus

Leishmania donovani

PS exposure

novobiocin [22]; miltefosine [23]; respiratory chain inhibitors [32]

 

ΔΨm changes

stationary phase [31]; edelfosine [30]

 

Cytochrome C release

novobiocin [22]; miltefosine [43]; withaferin A [33]

 

Caspase-like activity

stationary phase [31]; amphotericin b [31]; novobiocin [22];

miltefosine [23]; camptothecin [65]; flavonoids [24]

 

DNA degradation

stationary phase [31]; novobiocin [22]; miltefosine [23];

respiratory chain inhibitors [32]; H2O2; [62]

Leishmania infantum

PS exposure

heat shock [12]

 

ΔΨm changes

edelfosine [30]; heat shock [12]

 

Caspase-like activity

edelfosine [30]; heat shock [12]

 

DNA degradation

edelfosine [30]; heat shock [12]

Leishmania major

Caspase-like activity

serum deprivation/stationary phase [34]

 

DNA degradation

serum deprivation/stationary phase [34]

Leishmania amazonensis

PS exposure

metacyclogenesis [66]

 

DNA degradation

nitric oxide (NO) [61]

Leishmania mexicana

Caspase-like activity

serum deprivation/stationary phase [34]

 

DNA degradation

serum deprivation/stationary phase [34]

Toxoplasma gondii

Chromatin condensation

sodium nitroprusside (NO) [10]

 

DNA degradation

sodium nitroprusside (NO) [10]

 

Hypoploid nuclei

sodium nitroprusside (NO) [10]

 

PS exposure

intraperitoneal death in vivo in mice [28]

Trypanosoma brucei (s.l.)

PS exposure

high density culture [25]; prostaglandins [26, 41]; persistant ER stres [8]

quercetin [73]

 

ΔΨm changes

prostaglandins [26, 41]; modified bovine host defense peptide [40];

persistant ER stres [8]

 

Cytochrome C release

expression of proapoptotic Bax protein [44]

 

DNA degradation

high density culture [25]; prostaglandins [26, 41]; persistant ER stres [8];

lectin ConA [4]; H2O2 [67]

Plasmodium berghei

PS exposure

ookinete stage in vitro [17, 29]; nitric oxide in vitro [36]

 

ΔΨm changes

ookinete stage in vitro [29]; nitric oxide in vitro [36]

 

Caspase-like activity

ookinte stage in vitro and in vivo [17]; ookinte stage in vivo [29];

nitric oxide in vitro [36]

 

DNA degradation

ookinete stage in vitro [17, 29]

 

chromatin condensation

ookinte stage in vitro and in vivo [17]; ookinte stage in vivo [29];

nitric oxide in vitro [36]; L-dopa in vitro [36]

Plasmodium falciparum

ΔΨm changes

chloroquine [14, 37]; staurosporine [37]; bilirubin [38];,

atovaquone [39]; heat shock [15]

 

Caspase-like activity

chloroquine [14, 37]; staurosporine [37]; 4-hydroxytamoxifen [37];

bilirubin [38]

 

DNA degradation

cholorquine [13, 14, 37]; etoposide [14]; staurosporine [37];

4-hydroxytamoxifen [37]

Trichomonas vaginalis

PS exposure

etoposide, doxorubicin [74]

 

ΔΨm changes

etoposide, doxorubicin [74]

 

DNA degradation

etoposide, doxorubicin [74]

Blastocystis hominis

PS exposure

cytotoxic monoclonal antibody [75]; metronidazole [76];

staurosporine [77]

 

ΔΨm changes

cytotoxic monoclonal antibody [78]

 

Caspase-like activity

cytotoxic monoclonal antibody [78]

 

DNA degradation

cytotoxic monoclonal antibody [79]; metronidazole [76];

staurosporine [77]

 

chromatin condensation

staurosporine [77]

Entamoeba histolytica

Morphological changes

G418 [80]

 

chromatin condensation

G418 [80]

 

DNA degradation

G418 [80]

Giardia lamblia

PS exposure

metronidazole, H2O2; [81]

 

DNA degradation

metronidazole, H2O2; [81]