Table 1 Molecular and serological studies performed on Babesia spp. and Theileria spp. infections in wild carnivores
Host | Reported prevalence | Targeted agent | Country/Region | Sample origin | Observation | Reference | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% (positive/n) | Technique | ||||||
Canidae | |||||||
Bush dog (Speothos venaticus) | 29.0 (8/27) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Coyote (Canis latrans) | 0/12 | PCR | B. microti-likea | USA | W | [63] | |
Crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous) | 5.0 (2/39) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Fennec fox (Vulpes zerda) | (1/11) | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | |
Golden jackal (Canis aureus) | 0/32 | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | |
Grey fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) | 26.0 (8/31) | PCR | B. microti-like | USA | W | [63] | |
Hoary fox (Pseudolopex vetulus) | 0/7 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Maned wolf (Cerdocyon brachyurus) | 0/21 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Pale fox (Vulpes pallida) | 4.0 (1/28) | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | |
Racoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides) | (3/14) | PCR | B. microti-like | South Korea | W | Emaciated. One with severe tick infestation | [62] |
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) | 1.1 (1/91) | PCR | B. canis | Portugal | W | [53] | |
0.7 (1/138) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Northeastern Poland | W | [63] | ||
0/13 | PCR | B. microti-like | Sicily, Italy | W | [127] | ||
0/16 | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | ||
0.8 (1/119) | PCR | B. canis | Bosnia | W | [58] | ||
50.0 (10/20) | PCR | B. microti-like | Spain | W | |||
(1/2) | PCR | B. microti-like | Italy | W | [130] | ||
(1/5) | PCR | B. microti-like | Spain | W | [55] | ||
37.0 (58/158) | PCR | B. microti-like | USA | W | [63] | ||
(1/1) | PCR | B. microti-like | Prince Edward Island, Canada | W | Weakness, anemia, non-suppurative meningoencephalitis, bronchopneumonia and vacuolar hepatopathy | [64] | |
5.2 (10/191) | PCR | B. microti-like | Croatia | W | [59] | ||
0.5 (1/191) | PCR | B. microti-like | Croatia | W | [59] | ||
69.2 (63/91) | PCR | B. microti-like | Portugal | W | [53] | ||
50.0 (18/36) | PCR | B. microti-like | Austria | W | [56] | ||
46.0 (121/261) | PCR | B. microti-like | Thuringia, Germany | W | Carcasses with high infestations of ticks | [60] | |
0.98 (2/205) | PCR | B. microti-like | Italy | W | [12] | ||
20.0 (81/404) | PCR | B. microti-like | Hungary | W | [57] | ||
31.9 (38/119) | PCR | B. microti-like | Bosnia | W | 9.2 % co-infection with Hepatozoon canis; one fox co-infected with B. canis and H. canis | [58] | |
(2/12) | PCR | B. microti-like | Catalonia, Spain | W | One fox co-infected with Coxiella burnetti | [83] | |
14.6 (46/360) | PCR | B. microti-like | W/R | [131] | |||
Ruppell fox (Vulpes rueppellii) | 0/11 | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | |
Side-striped jackal (Canis adustos) | 0/2 | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Africa | W | [126] | |
Wild dog (Lycaon pictus) | 5.3 (16/301) | PCR | B. rossi | South Africa | W | [132] | |
0/11 | PCR | Babesia sp. | Zambia | W | Co-infection with Hepatozoon sp. | [109] | |
Wolf (Canis lupus) | 0/7 | PCR | B. microti-like | Italy | W | [12] | |
0/3 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
(2/12) | PCR | B. canis | Budapest, Hungary | R | Good body condition. Necropsy with severe jaudice, liver, gall bladder and spleen enlarged | [106] | |
0/7 | PCR | Babesia sp. | Italy | W | [12] | ||
Ursidae | |||||||
Hokkaido brown bear (Ursus arctos yesoensis) | (1/1) | PCR | Babesia sp. UR1 | Hokkaido, Japan | W | Heavily infested with ticks and anemia. Co-infection with Cytauxzoon sp. | [79] |
Japanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) | 14.1 (22/156) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Iwate, Japan | W | 76.3 % co-infection with Hepatozoon ursi | [48] |
Procyonidae | |||||||
Raccoon (Procyon lotor) | 8.3 (2/24) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Hokkaido, Japan | W | All have splenomegaly | [44] |
(1/1) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Illinois, USA | W | Anemia | [46] | |
90.0 (37/41) | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Carolina, USA | W | 67 % co-infection with B. microti-like | [89] | |
83.0 (34/41) | PCR | B. microti-like | North Carolina, USA | W | 76 % co-infection with Babesia (sensu stricto) clade | [89] | |
1.7 (6/348) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Hokkaido, Japan | W | Heavily infested with ticks | [47] | |
(14/17) | PCR | B. microti-like | Florida, USA | W | [45] | ||
White-nosed coatis (Nasua narica) | 100 (20) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Costa Rica | W | [133] | |
Mustelidae | |||||||
American mink (Neovison vison) | (13/13) | PCR | Babesia sp. NV-1 | Hokkaido, Japan | W | [134] | |
Badger (Meles meles) | (1/5) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Burgos, Spain | W | [55] | |
North American river otter (Lontra canadensis) | 82.0 (32/39) | PCR | Babesia sp. | North Carolina, USA | W | Wild-caught | [135] |
Stone marten (Martes foina) | (1/10) | PCR | B. vogeli | Catalonia, Spain | W | Co-infection with Bartonella clarridgeiae | [83] |
Felidae | |||||||
Black-footed cat (Felis nigripes) | (5/8) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Swaziland, Southern Africa | R | [65] | |
Caracal (Caracal caracal) | (1/1) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Durban, South Africa | W | Found ill with clinical sign of feline babesiosis | [136] |
0/2 | PCR | Babesia sp. | Swaziland, Southern Africa | W | [65] | ||
0/1 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) | 19.0 (18/97) | PCR | B. felis | Namibia | R | [65] | |
6.1 (3/49) | PCR | B. felis | Namibia | W | [65] | ||
3.0 (3/97) | PCR | B. leo | Namibia | R | [65] | ||
28.5 (39/137) | D/PCR | B. lengau | South Africa | R | [137] | ||
(5/5) | PCR | Theileria sp. | Salama-Malili ranch, Kenia | R | Subclinical | [69] | |
0/5 | PCR | Babesia sp. | Salama-Malili ranch, Kenia | R | Subclinical | [69] | |
(4/4) | PCR | B. leo | Zimbabwe | R | [65] | ||
Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) | 0/1 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Jaguar (Panthera onca) | (6/13) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Leopard (Panthera pardus) | (1/1) | PCR | B. leo | Namibia, Swaziland, South Africa | R | [65] | |
(2/2) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Nairobi National Park, Kenya | R | Subclinical | [69] | |
0/1 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
Lion (Panthera leo) | (16/16) | D/PCR | Babesia sp. | Kruger National Park, South Africa | W | Blood samples | [136] |
12.0 (3/25) | PCR | B. leo | Swaziland, Southern Africa | R | Co-infection with B. felis | [65] | |
25.0 (14/56) | PCR | B. leo | Swaziland, Southern Africa | W | Co-infection with B. felis | [65] | |
12.0 (3/25) | PCR | B. felis | Swaziland, Southern Africa | R | [65] | ||
1.7 (1/56) | PCR | B. felis | Swaziland, Southern Africa | W | [65] | ||
89.5 (238/266) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Serengeti | W | 1994 Canine distemper virus epidemic | [93], Terio personal communication | |
97.0 (34/35) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Ngorongoro | W | 2001 Canine distemper virus epidemic | [93], Terio personal communication | |
0/12 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
(2/2) | D/PCR | B. canis | Nairobi Orphanage, Kenya | R | Anemia, lethargy, wobble movement and dry eyes | [69] | |
12.0 (10/86) | PCR | B. vogeli | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | ||
59.0 (51/86) | PCR | B. leo | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | ||
25.0 (6/24) | PCR | B. felis | Zambia | W | Co-infection with Hepatozoon sp. | [109] | |
25.0 (6/24) | PCR | B. leo | Zambia | W | Co-infection with Hepatozoon sp. | [109] | |
1.0 (1/86) | PCR | T. sinensis | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | ||
1.0 (1/86) | PCR | T. parva | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | ||
Little spotted cat (Leopardus tigrinus) | 24.0 (9/38) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Margay (Leopardus wiedii) | (2/4) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) | 60.0 (26/43) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Pampas cat (Oncifelis colocolo) | (3/5) | IFAT/PCR | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Puma (Puma concolor) | 78.0 (32/41) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Florida, USA | W | 5 % co-infection with C. felis | [119] |
(2/18) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
Tiger (Panthera tigris) | 0/6 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Serval (Leptailurus serval) | (1/3) | PCR | B. felis | Swaziland, Southern Africa | R | [65] | |
(2/2) | PCR | B. vogeli | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | ||
0/1 | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | ||
Wild cat (Felis silvestris) | (6/6) | PCR | B. vogeli | Zimbabwe | R | [67] | |
Yaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) | 25.0 (6/25) | IFAT | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
Viverridae | |||||||
Common genet (Genetta genetta) | (1/2) | IFAT/PCR | Babesia sp. | Brazil | Z | [66] | |
0/34 | PCR | Babesia sp. | Catalonia, Spain | W | [83] | ||
Hyaenidae | |||||||
Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) | (6/19) | PCR | Babesia sp. | Zambia | W | Co-infection with Hepatozoon sp. | [109] |
Herpestidae | |||||||
South-African meerkats (Suricata suricatta) | 80.0 (37/46) | D/PCR | Babesia sp. | Kalahari, South Africa | W | 46 % of co-infection with Cytauxzoon sp. | [78] |