Loa loa vectors Chrysops spp.: perspectives on research, distribution, bionomics, and implications for elimination of lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis

Table 2 Summary of Chrysops spp. immature and adult stages, and associated vector control measures

Stage	Target	Aim	Activity	Target area	Category (after Gordon [28])
Larvae	Environmental modification	Reduce or kill pupae/ larval development and emergence	Drainage of water, vegetation clearing to remove shade; flood	Community and surrounds	Defensive
Larvae	Insecticide treatment	Reduce or kill pupae/ larval development and emergence	Apply insecticide to mud breeding sites	Community and surrounds	Aggressive
Adult	Personal repellents	Prevent biting by repelling with skin/ clothing impregnated insecticide	Apply insecticide to skin/impregnate clothes of humans	Humans	Defensive
	Household screens, curtains	Prevent indoor biting by a physical barrier/ infrastructure	Wired/meshed windows and doors of houses	Houses	Defensive
	Environmental modification	Reduce abundance by eliminating vegetation/ canopy resting sites	Vegetation clearing around houses/village surrounds	Community and surrounds	Defensive
	Insecticidal treatment	To kill or knock down host seeking	Spraying of foliage near oviposition sites	Community and surrounds	Aggressive
	Insecticidal treatment	To kill or knock down host seeking	Indoor residual spraying	Houses	Aggressive
	Traps alone, or with insecticide or wood fire	Reduce abundance by capturing or killing	Proximity to emerging larvae or host seeking	Community and surrounds	Aggressive

ISSN: 1756-3305