Table 5 Resistance mechanisms (verified and candidate mechanisms) in bed bugs (Cimex spp.)
From: Insecticide resistance and resistance mechanisms in bed bugs, Cimex spp. (Hemiptera: Cimicidae)
Mechanism | C. lectularius | C. hemipterus | Insecticide | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Behavioral resistance | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids | ||
Physiological resistance | Penetration resistance | Cuticle | Candidate mechanism | A broad spectrum of insecticide classes | |
Metabolic resistance | P450s | Verified by synergism studies [129] | Pyrethroids, OCs, OPs, carbamates, neonicotinoids and pyrroles | ||
Esterases | Verified by synergism studies [127] | Candidate mechanism | Carbamates, OPs, pyrroles, neonicotinoids and pyrethroids | ||
GSTs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OCs, OPs and pyrethroids | ||
ABC-transporters | Verified by RNAi [90] | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids, OCs, OPs, carbamates, and neonicotinoids | ||
Target site insensitivity | Kdr | Verified by QS combined with FCVB [162] | Candidate mechanism | Pyrethroids and DDT | |
Altered AChEs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OPs and carbamates | ||
Insensitive GABA receptors | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Cyclodienes (OCs) and phenylpyrazoles | ||
Altered nAChRs | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | Neonicotinoids | ||
Symbiont-mediated resistance | Â | Candidate mechanism | Candidate mechanism | OPs | |