Table 1 Summary of key attributes of indigenous African mosquito-borne arboviruses for which some mosquito host data are available
From: Mosquito-borne arboviruses of African origin: review of key viruses and vectors
Virus | Acronym | Distribution | Mosquito host speciesa | Known or likely amplifying host | Human infection | Mortalities | Date of first known sustained major geographical jump | Likely mode of rapid, large-distance virus dissemination | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Flaviviridae | |||||||||
Flavivirus | |||||||||
Bagaza | BAGV | West and Central Africa, India, Spain | Cx. guiarti, Cx. ingrami, Cx. perfuscus, Cx. thallasius, Cx. tritaeniorhynchus, Cx. univittatus | Unknown | Yes | Partridges and pheasants | Unknown | Migratory birds? | |
Banzi | BANV | Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zimbabwe | Cx. rubinotus | Rodents? | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Infected rodents? Overall low likelihood of rapid spread | |
Bouboui | BOUV | Central Africa | Ae. africanus, An. paludis | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Dengue | DENV1–4 | Africa: Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Comoros, Cote d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Reunion, Rwanda, Senegal, Seychelles, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, Zanzibar; Tropical/sub-tropical Asia-Pacific, north-east Australia; South and Central America | Ae. aegypti | Originally non-human primates, now humans | Yes | Humans | From Asia-Pacific to Americas in 1960s and Africa in 1980s | Infected humans and infected Aedes aegypti | |
Kedougou | KEDV | Central African Republic, Senegal | Ae. dalzieli, Ae. minutus, Ae. tarsalis | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Ntaya | NTAV | Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya, Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia, Romania | Culex? | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Migratory birds? | |
Spondweni | SPOV | Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. cumminsii, Cx. neavei, Cx. univitattus, Eretmapodites silvestris, Mansonia africana, Mansonia uniformis | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Uganda S | UGSV | Uganda | Ae. longipalpis, Aedes spp. | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Usutu | USUV | Africa: Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tunisia, Uganda; Europe: multiple countries | Ae. albopictus, Ae. caspius, An. maculipennis, Coquellittidia aurites, Cx. neavei, Cx. perexiguus, Cx. perfuscus, Cx. pipiens, Cx. univittatus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Mansonia africana | Various bird species (mainly passeriform and strigiform), horses, and possibly also bats | Yes | Frequent epidemic mortalities in Eurasian blackbirds Turdus merula | Africa into Western Europe (Spain) in the 1950s, separate strain Africa into Central Europe in the 1970s | Birds via migratory flyways; humans incidental and dead-end hosts | |
Wesselsbron | WESV | Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Thailand | Ae. caballus, Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. juppi, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. luridus, Ae. unidentatus, Ae. (Neomelaniconian) spp., Cx. univittatus | Livestock | Yes | Sheep | None known, quiescent in southern Africa | Desiccation-tolerant Aedes eggs | |
West Nile | WNV | Lineage 1: North Africa, Europe, India, Australia, North and South America, Caribbean; Lineage 2: South, Central and East Africa, Madagascar, Europe | Cx. modestus, Cx. neavei, Cx. perexiguus, Cx. pipiens, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. univittatus, Cx. theileri | Birds | Yes | Humans, horses, birds, dogs | 1999, North America | Migratory birds; infected humans | [19, 20, 26, 49, 62, 93, 103, 106, 108,109,110, 114, 116, 122, 123, 128, 264] |
Yaounde | YAOV | Cameroon, Ghana | Cx. nebulosus | Birds | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Birds? | |
Yellow fever | YFV | Africa: Angola, Benin, Burkino Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Cote d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Sudan, Togo, Uganda; Tropical South America, Caribbean | Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. furcifer/taylori, Ae. leucocelaenus, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. metallicus, Ae. opok, Ae. simpsoni complex, Ae. vittatus, Haemagogus capricorni, Haemagogus equines, Haemagogus janthinomys, Haemagogus leucocelanus, Haemagogus mesodentatus, Haemagogus spegazzinii, Sabethes chloropterus | Non-human primates: Africa: Monkeys (Cercopithecus), chimpanzees (Pan spp.), mangabey (Cercocebus spp.), baboons (Papio spp.), bush babies (Galaga spp.), and possibly hedgehogs (Erinaceus spp.); South/Central America: Capuchin (Cebus spp), spider (Ateles spp.), and howler (Alouatta spp.) monkeys and marmosets (Hapale spp.) | Yes | Humans | Africa to Caribbean, slave trade prior to 1650 | Ship-borne infected Aedes eggs or adults; air-transport of infected humans and Aedes aegypti | |
Zika | ZIKV | East, West and southern Africa, Asia Pacific, South and Central America, moving into southern areas of North America | Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. furcifer, Ae. jamoti, Ae. opok, Ae. flavicollis, Ae. grahami, Ae. taeniorostris, Ae. tarsalis, Ae. vittatus, Ae. dalziella, Ae. fowleri, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. metallicus, Ae. minimus, Ae. neoafricanus, An. gambiae, Eretmapodites inornatus, Eretmapodites quinquevittatus, Mansonia uniformis | Several species of African non-human primates | Yes | Rare in humans | From Asia to Yap Island (Federated States of Micronesia) in 2007, then to French Polynesia and other Pacific Islands 2013 and 2014, and finally to Brazil early 2015 | Infected Aedes mosquitoes by ship or air; infected humans | |
Togaviridae | |||||||||
Alphavirus | |||||||||
Babanki | BBKV | Kenya | Ae. africanus, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. simpsoni | ||||||
Chikungunya | CHIKV | Africa: Benin, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Comoros, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Guinea, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Nigeria, Republic of Congo, Reunion, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe; Middle East; Europe; Asia; the Americas; Oceania | Ae. aegypti, Ae. africanus, Ae. albopictus, Ae. cordellieri, Ae. furcifer, Ae. fulgens, Ae. luteocephalus, Ae. neoafricanus, Ae. taylori, Ae. vittatus | Non-human primates, humans | Yes | Humans | Previously limited to Africa and Asia, but since 2004 rapid spread to Europe, the Americas and Oceania with major outbreaks | Infected people; infected mosquitoes in cargo | |
Middelburg | MIDV | South Africa, Zimbabwe | Ae. caballus, Mansonia africana | Ruminants? | Yes | Horses | Unknown | Unknown | |
Ndumu | NDUV | Southern and East Africa | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. tricholabis, Cx. rubinotus, Mansonia uniformis | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
O’Nyong-Nyong | ONNV | Central, East and West Africa | An. funestus, An. gambiae, Mansonia uniformis | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Infectious humans moving between areas having appropriate vector species | |
Semliki Forest | SFV | Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Uganda | Ae. abnormalis-group, Ae. argenteopunctatus | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Sindbis | SINV | Africa: Cameroon, Egypt, Kenya, South Africa, Uganda; Europe and Middle East: Finland, Germany, Israel, Italy, Saudi Arabia, Sweden, UK; East and Australasia: Australia, China, India, Malaysia, Russian Federation, Philippines | Cx. univittatus, Cx. neavei, Cx. pipiens, Cx. torrentium, Culiseta morsitans, Coquillettidia fuscopennata | Migratory and other birds | Yes | Unknown | Entered Europe 1960s or 1970s | Intra or inter-continental via infected migratory birds; infected humans | |
Bunyaviridae | |||||||||
Phlebovirus | |||||||||
Rift Valley fever | RVFV | Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Gabon, Gambia, Guinea, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Arabian Peninsula | Ae. aegypti, Ae. caballus, Ae. cumminsii, Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. dentatus, Ae. juppi, Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. ochraceus, Ae. pembaensis, An. squamosus, Cx. bitaeniorhyncus, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Cx. poicilipes, Cx. theileri, Cx. univittatus, Cx. zombaensis, Eretmapodites quinquevittatus, Mansonia africana, Mansonia uniformis | Cattle, sheep, goats | Yes | Humans, goats, cattle, sheep | Trans-ovarially-infected dessication-resistant Aedes eggs | ||
Arumowot | AMTV | Central African Republic, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sudan | Cx. albiventris, Cx. antennatus, Cx. rubinotus | Kurrichane thrush, various mice, gerbils and shrews | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Orthobunyavirus | |||||||||
Batai | BATV | Uganda | “Mosquitoes” | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | [41] |
Bunyamwera | BUNV | Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Senegal, Kenya, Namibia, Nigeria, South Africa, Uganda | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi, An. funestus | Geese and other water birds | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Infected humans, desiccation-resistant eggs (but trans-ovarial transmission not proven) | |
Bwamba | BWAV | Cameroon, Central African Republic, Kenya, Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda | Ae. furcifer, An. coustani, An. funestus, An. gambiae, Mansonia uniformis | Unknown | Yes | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | |
Germiston | GERV | Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, Zimbabwe | Cx. rubinotus, Cx. theileri? | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Ilesha | ILEV | Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Uganda, Madagascar | An. gambiae | Unknown | Yes | Humans | Unknown | Unknown | |
Lumbo | LUMV | Mozambique, South Africa | Ae. pembaensis | Non-human primates? | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | [38] |
Ngari | NRIV | Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritania, Senegal, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania | Ae. mcintoshi, Ae. simpsoni, An. funestus | Unknown | Yes | Possibly | Unknown | Unknown | |
Nyando | NDV | Central African Republic, Kenya, Senegal, Uganda | An. funestus | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | ||
Pongola | PGAV | Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Uganda | Ae. circumluteolus, Ae. mcintoshi | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Shuni | SHUV | Nigeria, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Israel | Cx. theileri | Domestic stock and wild animals? | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Witwatersrand | WITV | Mozambique, South Africa, Zimbabwe | Cx. rubinotus | Birds suspected | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Rhabdoviridae | |||||||||
Kamese | KAMV | Central African Republic, Uganda | Cx. annulioris, Cx. pruina, Cx. tigripes | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | |
Mossuril | MOSV | Mozambique, South Africa | Culex sp. (sitiens?) | Unknown | Yes | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | [285] |