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Table 1 Hemoparasites in 19 Psittaciformes from different habitats and climates of the Indo-Malayan, Australasian and Neotropical regions

From: Can the intake of antiparasitic secondary metabolites explain the low prevalence of hemoparasites among wild Psittaciformes?

 

Locality (locality number)

Habitata

Climateb

n

Agec

Tissued

Hemoparasite presence and prevalence

Antiparasitic SM in diet?e

References

Cacatuidae

 Indo-Malayan

  Philippine cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia

Rasa I., Palawan, Philippines (1)

M, MF

Am

16

pf

FTA

−

Yes

[140]

Psittacidae

 Australasian

  New Caledonian rainbow lorikeet Trichoglossus haematodus deplanchii

Ouégoa, New Caledonia (2)

Sa

Af

2

ad

FTA

−

No

[141, 142]

1

pf

FTA

−

 

Parc des Grandes Fougères, New Caledonia (3)

Rf, Sa, PP

Af

5

ad

FTA

−

 

Motorpool, Nouméa, New Caledonia (4)

Su

Af

2

ad

FTA

−

 

Vallée des Colons, Nouméa, New Caledonia (5)

Su

Af

2

ad

FTA

−

 

  Forbes’ parakeet Cyanoramphus forbesi

Mangere I., Chatham Is., New Zealand (6)

CS

Cfbf

30

ad

FTA

−

No

[143,144,145]

  Red-fronted parakeet Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae

Raoul I., New Zealand (7)

EP

Cfag

34

ad

lys

Genus: Plasmodium; lineage: LIN4 (BELL02); identity 100%; prevalence 18%

No

[143, 146]

Tiritiri Matangi I., New Zealand (8)

BF, Gr, NTP

Cfb

24

pf

lys

−

[111]

Little Barrier I., New Zealand (9)

CK

Cfb

42

ad

lys

Genus: Plasmodium; lineage: LIN4 (BELL02); identity 100%; prevalence 5%; lineage: CN73; identity 99.7%; prevalence 5%

[102]

  New Caledonian parakeet Cyanoramphus saisseti

Parc des Grandes Fougères, New Caledonia (3)

Rf, Sa, PP

Af

1

pf

FTA

−

No

[142]

  Horned parakeet Eunymphicus cornutus

Parc des Grandes Fougères, New Caledonia (3)

Rf, Sa, PP

Af

1

ad

heart

−

No

[142]

Parc Provincial de la Rivière Bleue, New Caledonia (10)

Rf, Ma

Af

1

pf

kidney

−

[142]

  Ouvéa parakeet Eunymphicus uvaeensis

Gossana, Ouvéa, New Caledonia (11)

Rf, CP

Af

6

ad

FTA

−

No

[142]

1

juv

FTA

−

 

 Neotropical

  Blue and yellow macaw Ara ararauna

Trinidad, Bolivia (12)

PFIS

Am

2

ad

FTA

−

Yes

[147]

Sachojere, Bolivia (13)

PFIS

Am

1

pf

FTA

−

[147]

  Blue-throated macaw Ara glaucogularis

Beni, Bolivia (14)

PFIS

Am

1

ad

lys

−

Yes

[147]

Trinidad, Bolivia (12)

PFIS

Am

5

ad

FTA

−

[147]

2

pf

FTA

−

 

  Blue-crowned conure Thectocercus acuticaudatus

Chaco, Argentina (15)

DXF

Cfa

1

ad

lys

−

Yes

[148]

4

pf

lys

−

 

  White-eyed conure Psittacara leucophtalmus

Sachojere, Bolivia (13)

PFIS

Am

2

pf

FTA

−

No

[147]

  Brown-throated conure Eupsittula pertinax

Isla Margarita, Venezuela (16)

CTS

Awf

9

ad

FTA

−

Yes

[149]

  Nanday conure Aratinga nenday

Principe Negro, Pantanal, Brazil (17)

Gr, Sa, SS, Ri

Aw

11

pf

FTA

−

Yes

[150]

  Burrowing parrot Cyanoliseus patagonus

El Cóndor, Patagonia, Argentina (18)

Mo

BSk

32

ad

eth

−

Yes

[151]

14

ad

liver

−

 

Comallo, Patagonia, Argentina (19)

PS

Csb

5

ad

liver

−

[152]

  Austral parakeet Enicognathus ferrugineus

Navarino, Chile (20)

BFN

ET

2

ad

FTA

Genus: Leucocytozoon; prevalence 100%

No

[46]

Bariloche, Patagonia, Argentina (21)

BFN

Csb

3

ad

FTA

Genus: Leucocytozoon; prevalence 100%

[153]

1

pf

FTA

−

 

3

ad

liver

Genus: Leucocytozoon; prevalence 33%

 

1

pf

liver

−

 

  Blue-winged parrotlet Forpus xanthopterygius

Trinidad, Bolivia (12)

PFIS

Am

9

ad

FTA

−

Yes

[147]

  Yellow-chevroned parakeet Brotogeris chiriri

Trinidad, Bolivia (12)

PFIS

Am

4

ad

FTA

−

Yes

[147]

  Red-tailed Amazon Amazona brasilensis

Ilha Rasa, Guaraqueçaba, Brazil (22)

LAF, M

Cfa

29

pf

FTA

−

Yes

[154]

Ilha das Gamelas, Guaraqueçaba, Brazil (23)

LAF, M

Cfa

4

pf

FTA

−

[154]

  Blue-fronted Amazon Amazona aestiva

Jujuy, Argentina (24)

DXF

Cwa

6

ad

lys

−

Yes

[155]

Chaco, Argentina (15)

DXF

Cfa

13

ad

lys

−

[148]

Pantanal, Brasil (25)

Gr, Sa, SS, Ri

Aw

17

pf

FTA

−

[150]

  1. aHabitats: BF remnants of broadleaf forest, BFN broadleaf forests dominated by Nothofagus spp., CK coastal and kauri (Agathis australis) forests, CS coastal scrub, CP coconut plantations, CTS cactus and thorn scrub, DXF deciduous xerophyte forest, EP endemic pohutukawa (Metrosideros kermadecensis) sub-tropical moist forest, Gr grassland with sparse trees, LAF lowland Atlantic forest, M mangrove, Ma maquis, MF monsoon forest, Mo Monte xerophyte forest, NTP native trees planted under a re-vegetation programme, PFIS palm dominated forest islands surrounded by regularly flooded savannah, PP pine plantations, PS Patagonian steppes, Rf rainforest, Ri riparian forest, Sa savannah, SS scrub savannahs, Su sub-urban
  2. bThe diversity of climates following [143, 156], except where indicated: Af, tropical rainforest; Am, tropical monsoon; Aw, tropical savannah; BSk, arid, steppe, cold; Cfa, temperate, without dry season, hot summer; Cfb, temperate, without dry season, warm summer; Csb, temperate, dry summer, warm summer; Cwa, temperate, dry winter, hot summer; ET, polar, tundra
  3. cAge: age of individuals at the time of sampling; ad, adult; pf, pre-fledgling; juv, juvenile
  4. dTissue: tissue used to obtain DNA; FTA, blood in FTA cards; lys, blood in lysis buffer; eth, blood in ethanol 70%
  5. eFood items known for their secondary metabolites (SM) with antimalarial, trypanocidal or general antiparasitic properties
  6. ffollowing [143] and WorldClim database (http://www.worldclim.org) [145], using diva-gis (http://www.diva-gis.org/)
  7. gfollowing [143] and data from the New Zealand National Climate Database (http://cliflo.niwa.co.nz)
  8. Abbreviation: n, sample size
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Parasites & Vectors

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