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Table 4 Association between risk factors and schistosomiasis prevalence (S. haematobium or S. mansoni)

From: Epidemiological findings and policy implications from the nationwide schistosomiasis and intestinal helminthiasis survey in Sudan

Risk factors

 

% (n/N)

Adjusted ORa

(95% CI)

P-value

Latrine (household level)

Improved

2.9 (470/16,111)

0.45 (0.41–0.51)

< 0.001

Unimproved

6.1 (3805/62,507)

0.88 (0.82–0.93)

< 0.001

No latrine

7.2 (1495/20,779)

ref

 

Latrine (school level)

Improved

4.9 (2307/46,813)

0.75 (0.70–0.81)

< 0.001

Unimproved

5.8 (1701/29,180)

0.82 (0.77–0.89)

< 0.001

No latrine

7.3 (1825/25,090)

ref

 

Open defecation

Yes

7.4 (1394/18,796)

1.50 (1.35–1.66)

< 0.001

No

5.4 (4439/82,287)

ref

 

Water (household level)

Improved

5.7 (5139/90,444)

0.92 (0.84–1.02)

0.13

Unimproved

6.5 (694/10,639)

ref

 

Water (school level)

Improved

5.6 (4727/84,912)

1.05 (0.96–1.14)

0.29

Unimproved

6.8 (1106/16,171)

ref

 

Sex

Female

4.3 (1944/45,280)

0.63 (0.58–0.69)

< 0.001

Male

7.1 (3826/54,117)

ref

 

Routine water contact (contact with water bodies more than 2 times a weekb)

Yes

10.1 (3866/38,445)

2.96 (2.79–3.15)

< 0.001

No

3.1 (1904/60,952)

ref

 

Water contact type

Fetching water

9.9 (1355/13,718)

1.35 (1.26–1.44)

< 0.001

Bathing

13.3 (1700/12,770)

1.70 (1.59–1.81)

< 0.001

Washing clothes

14.3 (1013/7060)

1.94 (1.80–2.10)

< 0.001

Farming

10.2 (241/2362)

1.11 (0.96–1.28)

< 0.001

Swimming

11.9 (1909/16,034)

1.82 (1.71–1.94)

< 0.001

Watering livestock

20.0 (1068/5348)

2.32 (2.14–2.51)

< 0.001

Fishing

11.2 (62/552)

0.89 (0.67–1.18)

0.42

No routine water contact

3.1 (1904/60,952)

ref

 
  1. aLatrine (household/school): adjusted for age, sex, water (household, school), latrine (school/household); water (household/school): adjusted for age, sex, latrine (household, school), water (school/household); open defecation: adjusted for age, sex, water (household, school), latrine (school); sex: adjusted for water (household, school), latrine (household, school); water contact: adjusted for age, sex, water (household, school), latrine (household, school)
  2. bRiver, stream, lake, irrigation canal, reservoir