Fig. 2

Hypothesized mechanisms of Bartonella transmission in a terrestrial Arctic ecosystem. a Goose carcasses that are brought to dens may expose fox adults and kits to infected fleas. b Migrating geese may introduce Bartonella species from southern latitudes to fleas overwintering in nest material in the Arctic. Alternatively, nest fleas may expose geese to Bartonella if the bacteria can be maintained over the harsh arctic winter. c Collecting and caching eggs may result in transmission of Bartonella to foxes via nest flea bites or exposure to flea dirt on the surface of eggs. Alternatively, fleas may collect infected blood meals from foxes. d Predation of Arctic rodents may expose foxes to rodent fleas carrying Bartonella species. e Rodents may visit newly abandoned nests to consume egg remnants and may expose nest fleas to Bartonella species. Rodents may also be exposed to Bartonella species via flea feces or bites in nests