Table 1 Resampled 10 m spatial resolution predictor variables that were used to relate to the presence of teneral and non-teneral G. pallidipes

Land cover fraction

Tsetse flies require cool and shaded areas to rest and breed [6]. We hypothesized that areas with high fractions of woodland would exhibit a positive relationship with the presence of the fly, while areas with high fractions of croplands or bare land would have a negative correlation

NDVI

NDVI is a measure of green vegetation abundance. Unlike land cover, which is usually more static, NDVI varies within the year, allowing for a clearer distinction between seasons. NDVI has also been used previously as an indicator of the tsetse ecological niche [57], and based on that study we expect greater abundance for higher levels of NDVI

MNDWI

MNDWI is a spectral index that has been used to delineate open water areas from satellite imagery [58]. Moist environments are crucial for larval survival [6], but areas with too much water can result in the drowning of the larva. We hypothesized that areas with high MNDWI values would result in low teneral fly suitability

LST

LST is the temperature at the top of the canopy retrieved using satellite imagery [24], and it is commonly used as an indicator for air temperature. Several studies have assessed its influence on tsetse distribution, relative abundance, infection rates, and mortality rates [16, 59, 60]. Very high or low temperatures negatively affect the survival of G. pallidipes [61]. We hypothesized that areas having temperatures below 20 °C and above 28 °C [5] would result in a lower probability for tsetse presence for both life stages

Silt %

Soils with a large proportion of silt have poor water infiltration [62]. We hypothesized that an increase in silt content in the wet season would result in fewer teneral flies. We assumed that in the wet season, silty soils are more likely to hold high water levels, reducing the probability of burrowed pupae emerging

TWI

TWI quantifies how the land structure controls the hydrological process and has been used to delineate areas that are prone to flooding [63]. Areas with high water retention can cause the drowning of pupae, decreasing their survival rate. We hypothesized that areas with higher TWI values would be negatively associated with the presence of the teneral flies

Slope

Steep areas are vulnerable to soil erosion, while extremely flat areas can be vulnerable to flooding. Whilst erosion or water runoff is also affected by other factors like rainfall intensity [64], we hypothesized that very steep slopes would correlate negatively with the occurrence of teneral flies