Table 1 Anopheles species by laboratory strain and insecticide susceptibility profile fed on powdered formulations of either Piper nigrum (black pepper) or piperine at the larval stage

Anopheles arabiensis

KGB (Zimbabwe)

Insecticide susceptible

N/A

SENN (Sudan)

Mostly susceptible. Low-level resistance to permethrin

N/A [27]

SENN-DDT (Sudan)

Selected for resistance to DDT from SENN base colony. Also resistant to permethrin, deltamethrin and malathion [27, 28]

Elevated cytochrome P450, glutathione S-transferase (GST) and general esterase activity [27, 28]

Anopheles coluzzii

SILC^a (Sierra Leone)

Resistant to pyrethroids and DDT

^aNo data

SUA (Liberia)

Insecticide susceptible

N/A

Anopheles gambiae

GAH (Ghana)

Resistant to pyrethroids, DDT, carbamates and organophosphates [29]

Monooxygenase and esterase mediated detoxification coupled with the L1014F kdr mutation are implicated in pyrethroid resistance. An assortment of L1014F kdr is also implacted in DDT resistance. Mutations of the Alanine296-glycine (Rdl) GABA receptor and acetylcholinesterase receptor (ace-1 ^R) are associated with dieldrin and bediocarb resistance respectively [29].

TONGS^a (Cote d’Ivoire)

Resistant to pyrethroids, DDT, carbamates and organophosphates

^aNo data

Anopheles quadriannulatus

SANGWE (Zimbabwe)

Insecticide susceptible. Anopheles quadriannulatus is zoophilic and not considered to be a vector species.

N/A

Anopheles funestus

FANG (Angola)

Insecticide susceptible

N/A

FUMOZ-R (Mozambique)

Resistant to pyrethroids and carbamates [30]

Overexpression of the cytochrome P450 CYP6P9 [30]. Thickened cuticles also contribute to adult insecticide-resistance [31].