Table 1 Pathogens detected in, or transmitted by, I. ricinus. Pathogens are defined here as microorganisms which have been implicated in disease, because of evidence of infection in patients. Some pathogens have only caused disease in immune compromised cases. For most pathogens the Koch’s postulates have not been fulfilled and solid epidemiological evidence is lacking too [217]. Some pathogens, particularly Bartonella, Francisella and Coxiella, have other main modes of transmission. Transmission of Hepatozoon spp. by I. ricinus is not proven, but the infection of animals with Hepatozoon spp. usually involves the digestion of infected ticks. Finally, human infections of TBEV have also occurred through ingestion of contaminated, unpasteurized milk products [218], and other tick-borne pathogens have been transmitted via blood transfusion

Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.)

B. afzelii

Human

[23, 91, 219]

B. garinii

Human

B. burgdorferi (s.s.)

Human/ animal

B. spielmanii

Human

B. valaisiana

Human

B. bavariensis

Human

B. bissetti

Human

B. finlandensis

–

B. lusitaniae

Human

B. turdi

–

Babesia species

B. venatorum

Human/animal

[220,221,222]

B. divergens

Human/ animal

B. microti

Human

B. capreoli

Animal

B. odocoilei(-like)

–

Spotted fever rickettsia

R. helvetica

Human

[223]

R. monacensis

Human

Anaplasma phagocytophilum

Ecotype I

Human /animal

[224]

Ecotype II

–

Borrelia miyamotoi

Russian

Human

[17]

European

Human

Neoehrlichia mikurensis

Human/animal

[225, 226]

Spiroplasma ixodetes

Human/animal

[227, 228]

Orbivirus

Kemerovo virus

Human

[229]

Lipovnik virus

Human

Tribeč virus

Human

Flaviviruses

Tick-borne encephalitis virus

Human

[18, 230, 231]

Louping ill virus

Animal/ human

Nairovirus

Grotenhout virus

–

[232]

Coltivirus

Eyach virus

Human

[230, 233]

Phlebovirus viruses

Uukuniemi(-like) virus

–

[234]

Midichloria midichondria

–

[235]

Hepatozoon species

–

[236]

Coxiella burnetti

Human/animal

[237]

Francisella tularensis

F. tularensis holarctica

Human/animal

[238, 239]

Bartonella species

Human

[240]