Fig. 5

a, b Directly measured biting rate compared to parity-adjusted biting rates of Anopheles gambiae sensu lato and human location in the indoor residual spraying (IRS) communities (a) and in the control communities (b). c, d Human behavior-adjusted exposure to An. gambiae  sensu lato bites during the rainy months in IRS communities (c) and in control communities (d). Mosquito biting data were collected using human landing catches (HLCs) conducted from 6:00 pm to 6:00 am in northern Ghana from June 2017 to April 2019, and human behavioral data were collected in parallel by direct observation during HLCs. The proportion of residents that were outdoors (black bars), indoors but awake (gray bar) or indoors and asleep with insecticide-treated nets (ITNs; hashed bars) and without ITNs (dotted bars) is shown. These data are overlaid with indoor (blue, dashed lines) and outdoor (red, dashed lines) biting rates of An. gambiae sensu lato after adjusting for mosquito parity. Exposure is shown as average hourly biting rates (bites per person per hour) as determined from the numbers of parous mosquitoes collected during HLCs conducted from 6:00 pm to 6:00 am during the rainy season, from June 2017 to April 2019. HBRs occurring outdoors (red), indoors while asleep (light blue) and indoors while awake (dark blue), as well as bites prevented by sleeping under an ITN (hashed) are shown; pie chart insets show proportion of total bites for each category. HBO, Human behavior observations; HBR, human biting rate; LLIN, long-lasting insecticidal net