Fig. 1

During schistosome infection, inflammatory processes play an important role in parasite–microbiota interactions and their consequences. (1) Degradation of barrier function by the schistosome allows bacterial translocation and consequent inflammation, while microbe-driven pro-inflammatory responses contribute to antiparasitic immunity. (2) Decrease in bacterial abundance and diversity. (3) After the eggs mature in the worm’s body, their constantly secreted enzymes, proteins, and sugars and other soluble egg antigens penetrate the surrounding tissues through the microscopic pores of the eggshell, are phagocytosed and processed by macrophages and presented to T helper (Th) cells, while secreting interleukin-1 (IL-1), which activates Th and causes it to produce a variety of cytokines, and as the schistosome infection progresses, cytokine cascades change from a Th1 to Th2 profile. (4) Vitamin E may alleviate inflammatory damage by inhibiting the production of reactive oxygen species and generating NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 (NLRP3) immune complexes. (5) Metabolic changes surrounding schistosome infection