Skip to main content
Download PDF

The current distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia and inferring potential suitability areas for dominant tick species based on the MaxEnt model

Parasites & Vectors volume 16, Article number: 286 (2023) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

Ticks are known to transmit a wide range of diseases, including those caused by bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. The expansion of tick habitats has been intensified in recent years due to various factors such as global warming, alterations in microclimate, and human activities. Consequently, the probability of human exposure to diseases transmitted by ticks has increased, leading to a higher degree of risk associated with such diseases.

Methods

In this study, we conducted a comprehensive review of domestic and international literature databases to determine the current distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia. Next, we employed the MaxEnt model to analyze vital climatic and environmental factors influencing dominant tick distribution. Subsequently, we predicted the potential suitability areas of these dominant tick species under the near current conditions and the BCC-CSM2.MR model SSP245 scenario for the future periods of 2021–2040, 2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100.

Results

Our study revealed the presence of 23 tick species from six genera in Inner Mongolia, including four dominant tick species (Dermacentor nuttalli, Ixodes persulcatus, Dermacentor silvarum, and Hyalomma asiaticum). Dermacentor nuttalli, D. silvarum, and I. persulcatus are predominantly found in regions such as Xilin Gol and Hulunbuir. Temperature seasonality (Bio4), elevation (elev), and precipitation seasonality (Bio15) were the primary variables impacting the distribution of three tick species. In contrast, H. asiaticum is mainly distributed in Alxa and Bayannur and demonstrates heightened sensitivity to precipitation and other climatic factors. Our modeling results suggested that the potential suitability areas of these tick species would experience fluctuations over the four future periods (2021–2040, 2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100). Specifically, by 2081–2100, the centroid of suitable habitat for D. nuttalli, H. asiaticum, and I. persulcatus was predicted to shift westward, with new suitability areas emerging in regions such as Chifeng and Xilin Gol. The centroid of suitable habitat for H. asiaticum will move northeastward, and new suitability areas are likely to appear in areas such as Ordos and Bayannur.

Conclusions

This study provided a comprehensive overview of the tick species distribution patterns in Inner Mongolia. Our research has revealed a significant diversity of tick species in the region, exhibiting a wide distribution but with notable regional disparities. Our modeling results suggested that the dominant tick species’ suitable habitats will significantly expand in the future compared to their existing distribution under the near current conditions. Temperature and precipitation are the primary variables influencing these shifts in distribution. These findings can provide a valuable reference for future research on tick distribution and the surveillance of tick-borne diseases in the region.

Graphical Abstract

Background

Ticks are hematophagous arthropods that parasitize various vertebrate hosts, including livestock and wildlife [1]. Approximately 900 species of ticks worldwide are classified into three families and 18 genera. The reported presence of 125 tick species in China, consisting of 111 hard ticks (Ixodidae) and 14 soft ticks (Argasidae), serves as compelling evidence of the striking heterogeneity of tick diversity within the country [2]. Ticks not only are significant ectoparasites of animals but also serve as vectors and reservoirs for a wide range of important pathogens affecting humans and animals [3]. Ticks require blood meals to complete their life cycle, but this process can also cause localized infection, edema, acute inflammation, and secondary infections in the host. Additionally, ticks can transmit various tick-borne pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, and protozoans, which pose a significant threat to human and animal health [4, 5]. With global climate change and the expansion of human activities, tick bite incidents and associated infections have become a significant public health threat with increasingly severe consequences.

Due to the unique physiological habits of ticks, they spend most of their life cycle in natural environments outside their hosts. Consequently, ecological conditions are closely related to tick distribution patterns and population abundance. Conversely, climatic factors and host diversity can be used to predict areas at risk for tick-borne diseases [6]. Increased temperatures can positively impact ticks’ subsistence and reproduction during their non-parasitic life stages, promoting population growth and the possibility of expansion, establishment, and survival in new geographical areas [7]. Global climate change also indirectly affects tick-borne disease transmission, such as influencing vegetation distribution, the abundance of pathogen reservoir hosts, human behavior, and land use, which affect tick abundance and pathogen transmission [8]. Therefore, under the increasing risk of tick-borne diseases with climate change, understanding the distribution of dominant tick species under current and future climate conditions is profoundly significant for the prevention and control of tick-borne disease [9].

Several models have been developed to predict the distribution of species, including the maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model, classification and regression tree (CART) model, generalized linear model (GLM), habitat model (HABITAT), genetic algorithm for rule-set prediction (GARP) model, and bioclimatic model (BIOCLIM) [10, 11]. Among these, the MaxEnt model is based on the theory of species ecological niches and uses the location information of species occurrence and environmental background data to fit the probability distribution with the MaxEnt value, estimating the potential species distribution. Under the premise of known partial information, the most reasonable inference about the unknown distribution is the least specific or most random inference that conforms to the known information. The MaxEnt model has several advantages, such as using existing incomplete, small-sample, and discrete distribution data to predict species’ suitable distribution with high accuracy, stability, and easy interpretation [12, 13]. Therefore, it is widely used to predict ticks’ suitable habitat distribution.

Inner Mongolia, the widest province in China by latitude, is located along the northern border and is currently a high-incidence area for tick-borne diseases. Various tick-borne diseases, such as rickettsiosis, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, and brucellosis, have been reported in the region [14,15,16]. Inner Mongolia's unique natural climate, nomadic lifestyle, and ecotones between forests and grasslands provide favorable conditions for tick subsistence and reproduction. The rapidly developing livestock industry has significantly altered the interactions between animals and their habitats, making the relationship between ticks and host animals more complex. Moreover, multiple border ports in Inner Mongolia increase the risk of tick expansion and cross-border transmission of pathogens due to human activities and international trade. This study predicted the distribution of dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia based on the MaxEnt model and the ArcGIS spatial technology platform. This predictive data can provide research data for further studies on the distribution of tick populations in Inner Mongolia and the prevention and control of tick-borne diseases. Additionally, in-depth research on the current distribution status and trends of ticks in Inner Mongolia is of great significance for the monitoring and risk warning of tick-borne diseases in the region and the entire country.

Methods

Collection of tick geographical distribution data

A literature search was conducted in the CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), Wanfang, Baidu Scholar, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases using the keywords “Inner Mongolia” and “tick” for articles published between January 1, 1960, and November 30, 2022. By reading the titles, abstracts, and full texts of the articles, two reviewers filtered literature containing geographical distribution information of tick species in Inner Mongolia and extracted their geographical location information and distribution site coordinates. If the latitude and longitude were not indicated in the text, we determined the distribution site coordinates using the coordinate picker function on Google Maps based on the geographical location specified in the text. Based on a comprehensive review of existing literature reports, a summary of tick species distribution in Inner Mongolia has been compiled. The dominant tick species have been unequivocally determined through a thorough analysis of the number of distribution sites, ecological environments, records, and frequencies. To avoid overfitting due to overly concentrated distribution sites, ArcGIS 10.4 software was used to set a buffer zone with a radius of 10 km (consistent with the 10 km resolution of environmental climate data) for each acquired distribution point. Only one distribution site was retained in each 10 × 10 km grid.

Selection of environmental factors

Environmental factors such as bioclimatic variables and geographical data were used in our study. We used the 19 bioclimatic variables from the WorldClim database [17]. The resolution of the 19 bioclimatic variable layers was 5 arc minutes (approximately 10 × 10 km pixels near the equator). To avoid overfitting multicollinearity, the 19 climate factors (Bio1–Bio19) were resampled using the sampling function in ArcGIS 10.4 software (Esri ArcMap; Esri, Redlands, CA, USA). The data were imported into SPSS 22.0 software (IBM Corporation, Armonk, NY), and Pearson's matrix was used for correlation analysis. Highly correlated variables were defined as those with a correlation coefficient |r|> 0.9 and were screened based on the contribution rate of environmental factors. Basic map data are derived from the Department of Natural Resources Standard Map Service System (https://www.webmap.cn/). Geographical data, including slope, aspect, and elevation data for China, were downloaded from the Geospatial Data Cloud (www.gscloud.cn), and slope and aspect variables were calculated using ArcGIS 10.4 software.

Construction of the maximum entropy model

For the selected dominant tick species, the MaxEnt model was used to determine the key factors influencing tick distribution in Inner Mongolia. We randomly selected 75% of tick distribution sites as the training set and the remaining 25% as the test set to validate the model’s accuracy. The convergence domain limit was 10−5, the maximum number of iterations was 500, and 10 bootstrap calculations were performed for the current dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia using the MaxEnt model. The screened species distribution data and climate data were imported into the model. The jackknife method was selected in the environmental parameter settings to evaluate the weight of each ecological factor. We established univariate response curves for the distribution probability and environmental factors to determine the suitable range of environmental variable values.

Next, the accuracy of the model’s prediction results was validated using the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve in MaxEnt software. The area under the ROC curve (AUC value) was used to measure the model's predictive accuracy. Evaluation criteria were as follows: AUC values of 0.5–0.6 indicate failure, 0.6–0.7 indicate poor, 0.7–0.8 indicate fair, 0.8–0.9 indicate good, and 0.9–1.0 indicate excellent. The closer the AUC value was to 1, the more accurate the model's prediction results and the more significant the correlation between environmental factors and species distribution. The Jenks natural breaks classification method in ArcGIS 10.4 MaxEnt software was used to classify the habitat suitability levels of the four selected dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia.

Construction of potential suitability areas model for dominant tick species

The future climate data were derived from the high-resolution climate model BCC-CSM2.MR in the Sixth Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6) [18]. The BCC-CSM2-MR model included four components: atmosphere, land surface, ocean, and sea ice. Following the literature, the SSP245 scenario under the BCC-CSM2-MR model was selected [19]. Four future periods were used in the study: 2021–2040, 2041–2060, 2061–2080, and 2081–2100; SSP245 represents an upgrade of the RCP4.5 scenario based on SSP2, a medium forcing scenario. From the perspective of future greenhouse gas emissions and concentration trends, the RCP 4.5 scenario peaked in 2040 and stabilized by 2080. This greenhouse gas emission trend is consistent with China's future development trend and conforms to China's national conditions [20]. Therefore, we used the climate factors of the four periods under the SSP245 climate scenario as future environmental factors, along with the current geographical factors and distribution data for dominant tick species. These data were imported into MaxEnt software and run again to predict the habitat suitability of dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia under future environmental conditions.

Changes in the centroid of suitable habitat of dominant species

In this study, we used the suitability areas of dominant tick species to investigate the spatial changes in the overall habitat suitability by examining the changes in their centroid from the near current and 2081–2100 time period. To obtain the centroid coordinates, we performed binary conversion on the distribution maps of the MaxEnt model’s habitat suitability using the ArcGIS 10.4 software. We revealed the changes in direction and distance of the suitable habitat for the dominant tick species by connecting the centroids of suitable habitat under various climate conditions.

Results

Tick species distribution in Inner Mongolia

In this study, a total of 5109 articles were retrieved, including 2483 Chinese articles (1740 from CNKI, 253 from Wanfang, 490 from Baidu Scholar) and 2626 English articles (1629 from PubMed, 997 from Google Scholar). After removing duplicates and articles with unclear distribution information that did not meet the criteria, 102 Chinese and 49 English articles were included (Additional file 1: Figure S1). The results showed that 23 tick species belonging to six genera were currently distributed in Inner Mongolia (Table 1). Considering the distribution of different tick species in various ecological environments and the available collection of distribution sites, we selected the four dominant tick species for subsequent modeling analysis. Among the four species, 39 articles and 172 distribution sites were included for Dermacentor nuttalli; 41 articles and 140 distribution sites for Ixodes persulcatus; 35 articles and 128 distribution sites for Dermacentor silvarum; and 23 articles and 38 distribution sites for Hyalomma asiaticum. We set a 10-km-radius buffer zone for the extracted tick distribution sites, and only one distribution site was retained in each buffer zone. Finally, 104 D. nuttalli distribution sites, 85 I. persulcatus distribution sites, 82 D. silvarum distribution sites, and 23 H. asiaticum distribution sites were determined (Fig. 1). The distribution sites of the two subspecies (Hyalomma asiaticum asiaticum and Hyalomma asiaticum kozlovi) were combined to establish the model.

Table 1 Distribution records of ticks in Inner Mongolia by references
Full size table
Fig. 1
figure 1

Distribution map of primary tick species in Inner Mongolia

Full size image

Key variables that influence tick distribution

To construct the MaxEnt model for tick distribution, 19 bioclimatic variables were screened, and six variables were selected for modeling analysis (Additional file 3: Table S1). We used the jackknife analysis to evaluate the impact of various environmental factors on the potential suitability areas for dominant ticks. The top five main variables and their contribution rates are shown in Table 2. The distribution of D. nuttalli, I. persulcatus, and D. silvarum is primarily influenced by temperature seasonality (Bio4), elevation (elev), and precipitation seasonality (Bio15), with contribution rates exceeding 10%. In contrast, the distribution of H. asiaticum was mainly affected by precipitation.

Table 2 Key variables contributing to tick distribution
Full size table

Inferring potential suitability areas of ticks under near current and future conditions

The average AUC values of the ROC curve for the four tick species in 10 runs were 0.960, 0.964, 0.956, and 0.986, indicating that the model prediction accuracy is excellent in this study.

MaxEnt software was used to obtain the potential suitability areas for the four dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia. The potential suitability areas were divided into four levels: high-suitability area, medium-suitability area, low-suitability area, and unsuitable area (Fig. 2). The results showed that the potential suitability areas for D. nuttalli were mainly distributed in Hulunbuir, Xilin Gol, and Ulanqab. In contrast, the unsuitable areas were located in Alxa, Tongliao, and Wuhai. Under future climate scenarios, the proportion of potential suitability and the high-suitability regions for D. nuttalli in Inner Mongolia increased (Fig. 3). Compared to the near current condition, the potential suitability area for D. nuttalli in Inner Mongolia increased by 168,900 km2, with new potential suitability areas distributed in Hulunbuir, Hinggan League, and Chifeng in 2081–2100. The potential suitability area decreased by 34,000 km2, and the loss of potential suitability areas mainly occurred in the northeastern part of Hulunbuir (Additional file 2: Figure S2A).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Predicted spatial distribution of tick suitability areas in Inner Mongolia. A D. nuttalli; B I. persulcatus; C D. silvarum; D H. asiaticum

Full size image
Fig. 3
figure 3

Predicted spatial distribution of D. nuttalli suitability areas in Inner Mongolia under future periods: A 2021–2040; B 2041–2060; C 2061–2080; D 2081–2100

Full size image

The potential suitability areas for I. persulcatus were mainly distributed in Hulunbuir, Hinggan League, and Xilin Gol, while the unsuitable areas were located in Alxa, Tongliao, and Ulanqab. Under future climate scenarios, the proportion of potential high-suitability areas for I. persulcatus in Inner Mongolia decreased and then increased (Fig. 4). Compared to the near current climate scenario, the potential suitability area for I. persulcatus in Inner Mongolia increased by 156,300 km2, with new potential suitability areas distributed in Chifeng, Xilin Gol, and Ordos in the 2081–2100 time period. The potential suitability area decreased by 34,000 km2, and the loss of potential suitability areas were mainly located in Ulanqab (Additional file 2: Figure S2B).

Fig. 4
figure 4

Predicted spatial distribution of I. persulcatus in Inner Mongolia under future periods: A 2021–2040; B 2041–2060; C 2061–2080; D 2081–2100

Full size image

The potential suitability areas for D. silvarum were found in Hulunbuir, Xilin Gol, and Baotou, while the unsuitable areas were mainly located in Tongliao and Alxa. Under future climate scenarios, the proportion of potential suitability areas for D. silvarum in Inner Mongolia increases in all time periods, except for 2021–2040 (Fig. 5). Compared to the near current, the potential suitability area for D. silvarum in Inner Mongolia increased by 135,300 km2, with new potential suitability areas distributed in Chifeng, Xilin Gol, and Bayan Nur in 2081–2100. The potential suitability area decreased by 24,800 km2, and the loss of potential suitability areas were mainly located in Hulunbuir and Tongliao (Additional file 2: Figure S2C) in the future climate scenarios.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Predicted spatial distribution of D. silvarum in Inner Mongolia under future periods: A 2021–2040; B 2041–2060; C 2061–2080; D 2081–2100

Full size image

The potential suitability areas for H. asiaticum were mainly distributed in Alxa, Bayan Nur, and Baotou, while the unsuitable areas were primarily located in Hulunbuir, Chifeng, and Hinggan League. Under future climate scenarios, the proportion of potential high-suitability areas for H. asiaticum in Inner Mongolia increased (Fig. 6). Compared to the near current scenario, the potential suitability area for H. asiaticum in Inner Mongolia increased by 54,100 km2, with new potential suitability areas distributed in Ordos and Bayan Nur. The potential suitability area decreased by 9300 km2, and the loss of potential suitability areas were mainly located in Xilin Gol (Additional file 2: Figure S2D) in the future climate scenarios.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Predicted spatial distribution of H. asiaticum in Inner Mongolia under future periods: A 2021–2040; B 2041–2060; C 2061–2080; D 2081–2100

Full size image

Changes in the centroid of the potential suitability areas for dominant tick species in the near current and future period 2081–2100

The changes in the centroid of the potential suitability areas for dominant tick species in the near current and 2081–2100 time periods are shown in Fig. 7. By 2081–2100, the centroid of the potential suitability area for D. nuttalli shifted 156.89 km to the west-southwest direction, with a latitude change of approximately 0.9° and a longitude change of approximately 1.4°. There was also a westward expansion trend in the overall potential suitability area. By 2081–2100, the centroid of the potential suitability area for I. persulcatus shifted 156.89 km to the west-southwest direction, with a latitude change of approximately 0.9° and a longitude change of approximately 1.4°. The overall potential suitability area presented a westward expansion trend. By 2081–2100, the centroid of the potential suitability area for D. silvarum shifted about 133.65 km towards the west-southwest, with a latitude change of approximately 0.63° and a longitude shift of approximately 1.25°. The overall potential suitability area exhibited a westward expansion trend as well. By 2081–2100, the centroid of the potential suitability area for H. asiaticum moved about 28.75 km towards the east, with little change in latitude and a longitude change of approximately 0.3°. The overall potential suitability area demonstrated an eastward expansion trend.

Fig. 7
figure 7

Changes in the centroid of the potential suitability areas for the dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia

Full size image

Discussion

The MaxEnt model for tick distribution was first reported in 2006 [10] and has since become widely used for predicting tick habitat. In this study, we used the latest version of climate factors and tick distribution data in Inner Mongolia to generate new insights into the potential environmental factors and spatial patterns for tick distribution in Inner Mongolia. Through a comprehensive literature review, we identified 23 species from six genera of ticks reported in Inner Mongolia over the past six decades. The most dominant tick species are D. nuttalli, I. persulcatus, D. silvarum, and H. asiaticum. Using the MaxEnt model, we predicted the potential suitability areas for these four dominant tick species across different ecological environments in Inner Mongolia.

The distribution results for different tick species indicate that species of the genus Dermacentor, including D. nuttalli and D. silvarum, are mainly distributed in arid grassland areas suitable for grazing cattle and sheep, such as Hulunbuir and Xilin Gol within Inner Mongolia. Hulunbuir is an important pastoral area in Inner Mongolia, known for its vast grasslands, making it a significant livestock production area and an essential habitat for Dermacentor and Ixodes genera. Several tick-borne pathogens have been reported in the Hulunbuir region, such as a high Brucella positivity rate of 4.00–87.80% in tick samples in 2020 [14] and a high tick infection rate of Rickettsia up to 85.14% in 2021 [141], posing a severe threat to human and animal health. Moreover, the grassland areas of Hulunbuir and Xilin Gol are home to a diverse and abundant population of rodents and grazing animals, which can support a high density of ticks by serving as natural hosts. Moreover, local herders typically adopt grazing prohibition, rest, and rotation systems [142], which results in large-scale mobility of local wildlife and livestock. The migration of animal populations can lead to the passive movement of ticks that feed on them, thus expanding the potential suitability areas and distribution ranges of these tick species.

In contrast, I. persulcatus is mainly distributed in the Greater Khingan Range in northeastern China, adjacent to Russia. This region is characterized by high vegetation coverage and is one of China's important forestry and animal husbandry bases [54]. The forest–grassland transition zone of the Greater Khingan Range is a typical large-scale community-interlaced area in northern China and a key area where the Greater Khingan Range forest borders the Hulunbuir grassland. The transition zone has high biodiversity, frequent material flow, and strong spatio-temporal dynamic changes, which facilitates the development and reproduction of ticks [143]. Haemaphysalis asiaticum is mainly distributed in arid desert and desert environments in Inner Mongolia, such as Alxa and Bayan Nur. Alxa is located in the western part of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and has a temperate continental climate. The geographical area in question exhibits high temperatures, a limited amount of rainfall, and arid conditions. This environment promotes significant evaporation, and noteworthy fluctuations in temperature are common throughout the day. Additionally, sand and dust storms frequently occur, providing favorable conditions for the development and reproduction of H. asiaticum [144]. In addition, H. asiaticum parasitizes multiple hosts, with larvae feeding on mice, rabbits, hedgehogs, and other small animals typically found in arid areas [145]. In contrast, nymphs and adults usually parasitize large animals such as camels, cattle, horses, sheep, and wild boars [146]. Therefore, host distribution is also a crucial factor for the survival of H. asiaticum in arid environments.

Based on the analysis of the primary climatic and environmental variables, it is evident that temperature seasonality standard deviation (Bio4), elevation (elev), and precipitation seasonality (Bio15) significantly influence the distribution of D. nuttalli, I. persulcatus, and D. silvarum. Meanwhile, we also found considerable overlap in their suitable habitat ranges among these species. The probability of these tick species' distribution reaches its maximum when the temperature seasonality standard deviation (Bio4) is 1719.62, 1939.03, and 1891.02, respectively. It can be inferred that these species are more sensitive to temperature. This finding is consistent with the results of Yang et al., which indicated that the probability of D. nuttalli distribution is more susceptible to temperature than other tick species (Ixodes granulatus, Haemaphysalis longicornis, and Dermacentor marginatus) [147]. The probabilities of the three tick species’ distribution are within the high-suitability range when elevations are 530.84–848.75 m, 581.65–907.59 m, and 493.56–961.61 m, respectively. This demonstrates that D. silvarum has a lower elevation requirement for subsistence and reproduction, which is consistent with our model proposing that the high-suitability area for D. silvarum is larger than that for the other three tick species. In the near current scenario, the high-suitability area for D. silvarum accounts for 19.13% of the total area of Inner Mongolia.

Notably, when Bio15 (precipitation seasonality) is approximately 118 mm, the suitability for three tick species is the highest. This could be a key reason for the overlapping distribution of these tick species in arid grassland regions. Wang et al. revealed the significant impact of Bio15 on D. nuttalli distribution [148]. In contrast to the three ticks mentioned earlier, H. asiaticum is primarily affected by precipitation-related climatic factors. A study on H. asiaticum distribution in Xinjiang showed that a longer summer and shorter winter is an ideal habitat for the species. A lower precipitation variability level corresponds to higher suitability, as stable precipitation helps maintain relatively stable air humidity [149]. Under these conditions, H. asiaticum can absorb water vapor from the air during their host-seeking period, maintaining hydrological balance for subsistence.

Considering the overall increase and decrease in the potential suitability areas inferred for the four tick species, their suitability areas are expected to expand in the near current and the future period of 2081–2100. There are several studies that are consistent with our model. For instance, Yang et al. revealed that the northeastern forest region would become warmer and more suitable for D. nuttalli due to global warming and land-use changes [147]. Additionally, Ma et al. indicated that suitable areas for I. persulcatus will increase in Inner Mongolia by 2070 [150]. Thus, it is evident that the combined effects of climate change, human activities, land use, and vector population growth will lead to the expansion of suitable habitat areas for the dominant tick species in Inner Mongolia. During 2081–2100, the centroid of suitable habitats for D. nuttalli, I. persulcatus, and D. silvarum is expected to shift westward, with local expansion in parts of Alxa, Bayannur, and Ordos. The centroid of suitable habitat areas for H. asiaticum will migrate towards the east-northeast, with newly suitable habitat areas emerging in parts of Ordos and Bayannur. This shift may be related to the reforestation, forest protection, and afforestation projects undertaken in desert areas such as Alxa, as well as the establishment of forest ecosystem benefit compensation systems and afforestation subsidy pilot projects, which have reduced the unused land area in sandy, Gobi, and desert regions [151].

The present study has utilized a comprehensive dataset gathered from various literature sources spanning a broad temporal and geographical range. The majority of reports included in the study were based on either morphological or molecular identification of tick species, and the MaxEnt distribution modeling was performed based on these data. Although there is the possibility of prediction distribution biases due to repeated sampling. By removing duplicate records at the same location and ensuring a minimum distance between sampling records, this study has effectively corrected the geographical sampling bias in the tick distribution dataset. However, it is important to note that the model only provides potential areas where a given species may survive, which may not necessarily represent actual distributions or species abundance. Our model considers only abiotic factors and does not consider the influence of hosts and other biotic factors. For example, the analysis does not include influential factors such as the distribution of animal hosts and human social activities, which may result in tick distribution found in unsuitable habitat areas. Future investigations could therefore incorporate tick-host analysis and further combine multiple modeling and evaluation methods to improve the limitations of the current MaxEnt model.

Conclusion

In summary, the present study has unveiled the extant distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia through analysis of available data sources. Moreover, utilizing the MaxEnt and ArcGIS spatial technology platforms and taking into account the tick distribution site data and pertinent bioclimatic variable data, we have projected the distribution of the four dominant tick species under the near current and future periods. These findings are important for tick research and monitoring the spread of tick-borne diseases in the region.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

References

  1. Wikel SK. Ticks and tick-borne infections: complex ecology, agents, and host interactions. Vet Sci. 2018;5:60.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. Zhang YK, Zhang XY, Liu JZ. Ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea) in China: geographical distribution, host diversity, and specificity. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol. 2019;102:e21544.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. Li T. Dermacor population ecology and physiological adaptation in Tibet. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Kazimírová M, Štibrániová I. Tick salivary compounds: their role in modulation of host defences and pathogen transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2013;3:43.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Kingry L, et al. Targeted metagenomics for clinical detection and discovery of bacterial tick-borne pathogens. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58:e00147-e220.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  6. Sukumaran B, et al. An Ixodes scapularis protein required for survival of Anaplasma phagocytophilum in tick salivary glands. J Exp Med. 2006;203:1507–17.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. Capligina V, et al. Large-scale countrywide screening for tick-borne pathogens in field-collected ticks in Latvia during 2017–2019. Parasites Vectors. 2020;13:1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Gray J, et al. Effects of climate change on ticks and tick-borne diseases in Europe. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis. 2009. https://doi.org/10.1155/2009/593232.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Madison-Antenucci S, et al. Emerging tick-borne diseases. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2020;33:e00083-e118.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  10. Elith J, et al. Novel methods improve prediction of species’ distributions from occurrence data. Ecography. 2006;29:129–51.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Hernandez PA, et al. The effect of sample size and species characteristics on performance of different species distribution modeling methods. Ecography. 2006;29:773–85.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Phillips SJ, Anderson RP, Schapire RE. Maximum entropy modeling of species geographic distributions. Ecol Model. 2006;190:231–59.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Elith J, et al. A statistical explanation of MaxEnt for ecologists. Divers Distrib. 2011;17:43–57.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Huang T, et al. A novel arthropod host of brucellosis in the arid steppe ecosystem. Front Vet Sci. 2020;7:566253.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Jiao J, et al. Identification of tick-borne pathogens by metagenomic next-generation sequencing in Dermacentor nuttalli and Ixodes persulcatus in Inner Mongolia, China. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Li Y, et al. Seroepidemiological investigation of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in sheep and camels of Inner Mongolia of China. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2020;20:461–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Fick SE, Hijmans RJ. WorldClim 2: new 1-km spatial resolution climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol. 2017;37:4302–15.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Yang G, Pei Y, Song M. Evaluation and prediction of precipitation distribution in Southwest China by CMIP6 model. Open J Nat Sci. 2021;9:11.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Hurtt G, et al. Harmonization of global land-use change and management for the period 850–2100. 2016. Geosci Model Dev. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-5425-2020.

  20. Zhang L, Huang D, Yang B. Future population exposure to high temperature in China under RCP4. 5 scenario. Geogr Res. 2016;35:2238–48.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Gui Z, et al. Genetic diversity analysis of Dermacentor nuttalli within Inner Mongolia, China. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14:1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Kong Y, et al. Phylogenetic analysis of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus in inner Mongolia, China. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2022;13:101856.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Kong Y, et al. Metatranscriptomics reveals the diversity of the tick virome in Northwest China. Microbiol Spectr. 2022;10:e01115-e1122.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Gui Z, et al. Identification and genetic diversity analysis of Rickettsia in Dermacentor nuttalli within inner Mongolia, China. Parasites Vectors. 2022;15:286.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  25. Fan M, et al. Rickettsial and serologic evidence for prevalent spotted fever rickettsiosis in inner Mongolia. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 1987;36:615–20.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Tian J, et al. The diversity and evolutionary relationships of ticks and tick-borne bacteria collected in China. Parasites Vectors. 2022;15:1–14.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Liu Q-H, et al. Evidence for a high prevalence of spotted fever group rickettsial infections in diverse ecologic zones of Inner Mongolia. Epidemiol Infect. 1995;115:177–83.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Hao G-F, et al. Detection of tick and tick-borne pathogen in some ports of Inner Mongolia. Zhonghua liu Xing Bing xue za zhi= Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi. 2009;30:365–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Wu L, et al. Microbial Diversity of Ticks And A Novel Tyhpus Group Rickettsia Species (R. bacterium Ac37b) Detected In Inner Mongolia, China. 2021.

  30. Lv J, et al. Assessment of four DNA fragments (COI, 16S rDNA, ITS2, 12S rDNA) for species identification of the Ixodida (Acari: Ixodida). Parasites Vectors. 2014;7:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Gui, Z., J. Yu, and L. Mu, DNA detection genotype distribution of spotted fever group Rickettsiae carried by dermpor steppe in some areas of Inner Mongolia Journal of Jilin, University. Journal of Jilin University(Medicine Edition), 2021. 47(01).

  32. Jiang L, Lian-gui X, Jin-guo Z. Kirksiella bayeri was detected from dermacor steppe at Erguna port for the first time. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2017;40:3.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Zhu J, et al. Tick investigation at Erguna port and adjacent forest area in 2015. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2016;39:3.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Jin Y, et al. Isolation and identification of Rickettsia Ha-91 strain from Inner Mongolia-Amun spotted fever group. Chin J Zoonoses. 1993;9:3.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Niu L-C, et al. Geographical epidemiological survey of rickettsiae of spotted fever group in forest steppe of Inner Mongolia. Vet Orientat. 1993;1:8.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Wu C, Chen X. Rickettsia Q was isolated from tick adults in central Inner Mongolia for the first time. Chin J Zoonoses. 1990;6:3.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Zhang, J. and Q.e. Zhang, Chinese researchers found Lyme disease natural focus in Inner Mongolia. People's Military Surgeon, 1990(10).

  38. Zhao H, Li Q. Rickettsia Q was isolated from Inner Mongolia for the first time and its serological investigation. Inner Mong Med J. 1990;10:2.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Jiang Z, Morphological study of D. nuttalli and D. silvarum nymphes. Journal of Beijing Normal University (Natural Science), 1987; (01): p. 68–75.

  40. Jiang Z, Morphological study of D. nuttalli and D. silvarum larvae. Journal of Beijing Normal University (Natural Science), 1985; (01): p. 60–69.

  41. Li Y, et al. Investigation on dominant species of ticks and pathogen carrying in central and western port areas of Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in 2020. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2022;33:5.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Huang T, et al. Isolation and identification of Brucella sheep from parasitic ticks on bovine body surface in Hulunbuir area. Sci Agric Sinica. 2022;002:055.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Kong Y, et al. Pigeon circovirus has been detected from parasitic ticks in sheep and camels in Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vet Sci. 2021;41:6.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Wu L. et al. Detection and evolution analysis of Dermacentor nuttalli carrier anaplasmosis in grassland of Inner Mongolia. Chinese J Zoonoses. 2021;37(12):1084–1090

  45. Yang C, et al. Investigation on ticks and pathogens carried by them in western port area of Inner Mongolia in 2019. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2021;44:3.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Sheng Y, et al. A survey of spotted fever group rickettsia carried by ticks in some areas of Inner Mongolia from 2019 to 2020. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2021;44:3.

    Google Scholar 

  47. He H, et al. Isolation and identification of an Inner Mongolia strain of tick-derived alkali-producing Bacillus faecalis. Chin J Vet Sci. 2018;38:6.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Yang Y, et al. Investigation on pathogens carried by ticks in Manzhouli port area of Inner Mongolia from 2012 to 2014. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2018;29:5.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Huang T, et al. Identification and gene polymorphism analysis of dominant tick species in Hulunbuir, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vet Sci. 2017;37:6.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ji C. Investigation on the foci of tick-borne lyme disease in Alatanheli area of Bogda Mountain. Electron J Clin Med Lit. 2017;5:2.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Zhaomu L, et al. First isolation and identification of a tick-derived strain Oceanobacillus oncorhynchi IMH with salt and alkali tolerance. Acta Microbiologica Sinica. 2019;59(05):841–850. https://doi.org/10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20180323.

  52. Huang F, et al. Dominant tick species and their genetic diversity in Xilin Gol league, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vet Sci. 2019;39:7.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Fan Y. Detection of rickettsia in Dermacentor nuttalli and its effect on host genetic diversity. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2019.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Liu D, et al. Population distribution and pathogen diversity of different parasitic ticks in Inner Mongolia from 2015 to 2019. Modern Prev Med. 2021;08:1345–9.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Deng H, et al. Nucleic acid detection and sequence analysis of spotted fever group rickettsiae carried by ticks at Manzhouli Port. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2014;5:3.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Robinson KA, Saldanha IJ, Na M. Development of a framework to identify research gaps from systematic reviews. J Clin Epidemiol. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2011.06.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Li X. Isolation and identification of tick-derived lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus and forest encephalitis virus. Changchun: Jilin Agricultural University; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Sheng Y. Molecular epidemiological characteristics of tick-borne spotted fever group Rickettsia in Inner Mongolia. Chengde: Chengde Medical College; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Li L-F, et al. Dermacentor silvarum, a medically important tick, may not be a competent vector to transmit Jingmen tick virus. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2022;22:402–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Ruan Q, et al. Investigation of ticks at Erguna port and adjacent forest areas in 2015. Acta Parasitol Et Med Entomol Sinica. 2019;26:65–8.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Yu H, et al. Tick species survey in Inner Mongolia border port area in 2019. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2022;33:289–92.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Zhou L, et al. Investigation of spotted fever Rickettsia carried by ticks in Qigan, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2017;40:96–9.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Tang F, et al. Investigation on Borrelia burgdorferi carried by ticks in Qigan, Inner Mongolia. Infect Dis Inf. 2018;31:31–3.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Gao D, et al. Detection of Ehrlichia human granulocyte 16SrRNA gene in ticks from northern China. Acta Parasitol Et Med Entomol Sinica. 2000;02:103–8.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Qin W, Li Y, Song C. Epidemiological investigation of Erich disease in the population in the Yakesite area. Inner Mong Med J. 2006;01:65–6.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Yang H, et al. Risk assessment and management strategy of vector-borne disease in Zhurihe training base. Chin J Hyg Insect Equip. 2017;23:511–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Ruan Q, et al. Ticks in Inner Mongolia port areas on Sino-Russia border. Acta Parasitol et Med Entomol Sinica. 2019;26:65–8.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Zhou L. Investigation on pathogens carried by ticks in Inner Mongolia forest area. Beijing: PLA Academy of Military Medical Sciences; 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Sun Y, et al. Experimental study on infection of forest dermatitis and steppe dermatitis and transmission of Lyme disease spirochetes during menstrual period. Acta Entomol Sin. 2002;05:578–82.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Yao W, G Chen, Relationship between life history and temperature and humidity of dermacorph forest. Acta Entomologica Sinica. 1981; (02): p. 233–236.

  71. Wang M, et al. Tissue localization and variation of major symbionts in Haemaphysalis longicornis, Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides, and Dermacentor silvarum in China. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2018;84:e00029-e118.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Wen B, Cao W, Pan H. Ehrlichiae and ehrlichial diseases in China. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003;990:45–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Guo W-B, et al. Distribution of Dermacentor silvarum and associated pathogens: meta-analysis of global published data and a field survey in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:4430.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Sun Y, Xu R. Ability of Ixodes persulcatus, Haemaphysalis concinna and Dermacentor silvarum ticks to acquire and transstadially transmit Borrelia garinii. Exp Appl Acarol. 2003;31:151–60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Chu C, et al. Genotyping of Borrelia lyme in ticks and mice in the Greater Khingan Mountains. Chinese Journal of Epidemiology. 2006; (08): p. 681–684.

  76. Qin W, Li Y, Song C. Tick fluctuation in Yakeshi area, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Zoonoses. 2005;11:11.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Sun Y, et al. Isolation and identification of Spirochaeta lyme disease from some common ticks in China. Acta Parasitologica Et Medica Entomologica Sinica. 2002;02:114–9.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Yan D, et al. Forest encephalitis virus was isolated for the first time in the greater Khingan Mountains of Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia. Med J. 1996;02:65–7.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Ren G, et al. Three strains of forest encephalitis virus were isolated from Ixodes holosulcus for the first time. J Med Pest Control. 1994;02:71–3.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Zhu J, et al. Vector investigation of Lyme disease in greater Khingan Mountains of Inner Mongolia. Chin J Public Health. 1993;03:109.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Yan D, et al. Ixodes holosulis is the main biological vector of Spirochaeta lyme disease in the Greater Khingan Mountains of Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 1991;04:270–2.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Lu J, et al. Investigation of Lyme disease in Hulunbuir league forest area. Inner Mong Med J. 1992;03:30–1.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Duan L, et al. Detection and genotyping of Borrelia burgdorferi carried by free ticks in Alshan, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2022;33:642–7.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Liu D, et al. Investigation on tick species and tick-borne infection in Yakeshi member of greater Khingan Mountains, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Zoonoses. 2021;37:845–50.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Sheng Y, et al. Investigation of spotted fever group rickettsia carried by ticks in Inner Mongolia from 2019 to 2020. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2021;44:168–70.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Zhu J, et al. Tick investigation at Erguna port and adjacent forest area in 2015. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2016;39:336–8.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Cao X, et al. Investigation on the species of parasitic ticks and tick-borne pathogens in sheep at Erenhot port. Chin J Hyg Insect Equip. 2014;20:421–3.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Hao G, et al. Detection of main ticks and tick-borne pathogens at some border ports in Inner Mongolia. Chin J Epidemiol. 2009;4:365–7.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Tian X, et al. Tick population survey in Erguna National Nature Reserve, Inner Mongolia. Acta Parasitologica Et Medica Entomologica Sinica. 2019;2:2.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Guo W. Epidemiological investigation of pathogens carried by dermacor forest. Beijing: Academy of Military Medical Sciences; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Wang, S., et al., Investigation on natural foci of forest encephalitis in greater Khingan Mountains, Inner Mongolia. Bulletin of Disease Control & Prevention. 1995; (02): p. 72–74

  92. Cui Y, et al. Surveillance of rickettsia-associated bacteria in the greater Khingan Mountains of Inner Mongolia from 2016 to 2019. Modern Prev Med. 2021;48:2850–6.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Ulan T, et al. Diversity and genotype analysis of tick-borne pathogens in central and western grasslands of Inner Mongolia. Chin J Parasitol Parasitic Dis. 2021;39:27–34.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Yin X, et al. Spotted fever group rickettsiae in Inner Mongolia, China, 2015–2016. Emerg Infect Dis. 2018;24:2105.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  95. Cao X, et al. Investigation on the pathogen of parasitic tick infection in rats at Erenhot port. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2014;25:127–30.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Guo W, Gao Y, Tian F. Investigation of vector-borne pathogens in Manzhouli port area in 2016. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2017;40:410–2.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Chen Z, et al. The life cycle of Hyalomma asiaticum kozlovi Olenev, 1931 (Acari: Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. Vet Parasitol. 2009;160:134–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Yang Y, et al. Investigation on pathogens carried by ticks at Ganqidi Maodu port in China-Mongolia border area from 2012 to 2013. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2016;39:330–2.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Yang Y, et al. Investigation on pathogens carried by ticks at Ganqidi Maodu port in China and Mongolia in 2010. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2011;34:339–42.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Yao W. Effects of temperature and humidity on oviposition of Hyalomonas Yadonensis. Acta Entomol Sin. 1985;02:173–80.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Chen Z. Systematic classification of ticks in China and analysis of biological characteristics of two Ixodes. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2010.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Zhao H, et al. Epidemiological investigation of Lyme disease in cattle and sheep in Xilin Gol area, Inner Mongolia. Prog Vet Med. 2002;02:72–4.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Wang Y, Huang T, Geri L. Identification and gene polymorphism analysis of Hyalomonas asiatica from Ejin banner, Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vet Sci. 2020;40:2337–41.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Cai Y, et al. Virology analysis of parasitic ticks in camels and sheep in Inner Mongolia. Chin J Virol. 2021;37:1148–57.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Liu C. Morphological comparison and gene polymorphism analysis of Hyalomma asiaticum from different regions of China. Shijiazhuang: Henan Agricultural University; 2016.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Batu N, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Rickettsia sp. and Coxiella burnetii collected from Hyalomma asiaticum in Bactrian camels (Camelus bactrianus) in Inner Mongolia of China. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2020;11:101548.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Na K-H, et al. Artificial cultivation of Hyalomonas fragilis and experimental transmission to Tyleria cylindrica. Chin Vet Sci. 2002;06:27–8.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Zheng P. Cloning, prokaryotic expression and functional analysis of the ferritin gene from Hyalomonas matricorosa and Haemaphysalis obtusis. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Gao Z, et al. The molecular and functional characterization of ferritins in the hard tick Hyalomma rufipes. Parasites Vectors. 2022;15:368.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  110. Guosong R, et al. Investigation on the seasonal fluctuation of Ixodes holosulis in the natural foci of Lyme disease in greater Khingan Mountains, Inner Mongolia. J Med Pest Control. 1992;02:107–9.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Men H. Study on the population ecology of Hemophila and control of American Ticks. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Wang H. Isolation, detection and genotyping of Spirochaeta lyme from ticks in China. Shanghai: Academy of Military Medical Sciences; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Meng H, et al. Abundance and seasonal activity of Haemaphysalis concinna (Acari: Ixodidae) at the border between China and Russia in Northern Inner Mongolia, China. Parasites Vectors. 2016;9:1–7.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  114. Meng H, et al. The life cycle and occurrence of Haemaphysalis concinna (Acari: Ixodidae) under field conditions. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2014;5:887–91.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Kasama K, et al. Genomic features of Rickettsia heilongjiangensis revealed by intraspecies comparison and detailed comparison with Rickettsia japonica. Front Microbiol. 2019;10:2787.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. Temu Q, et al. Overwintering investigation of steppe haemaphysalis in desert steppe of northern Inner Mongolia. Neimenggu Prev Med. 1995;02:82.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Zhao H, Su J. Investigation of lyme disease foci on grassland in Xilin Gol league. Neimenggu Prev Med. 2003;01:6–7.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Zhang F, et al. Detection of Francisella tularensis in ticks and identification of their genotypes using multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis. BMC Microbiol. 2008;8:1–5.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Shuai L-Y, et al. Ecological correlates of ectoparasite load in a rodent: complex roles of seasonality. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildlife. 2022;18:244–8.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Gao Y, et al. First detection of Borrelia miyamotoi infections in ticks and humans from the northeast of Inner Mongolia. China Acta Tropica. 2021;217:105857.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Ma J, et al. Identification of a new orthonairovirus associated with human febrile illness in China. Nat Med. 2021;27:434–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Sato K, et al. Surveillance of Borrelia miyamotoi-carrying ticks and genomic analysis of isolates in Inner Mongolia, China. Parasites Vectors. 2021;14:1–8.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Liu L, et al. Investigations on rickettsia in ticks at the Sino-Russian and Sino-Mongolian borders, China. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2015;15:785–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Li X, et al. Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of tick-borne encephalitis virus in ticks in northeastern China. J Med Virol. 2022;94:507–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Chu C-Y, et al. Genetic diversity of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato isolates from Northeastern China. Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2011;11:877–82.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Lu X, et al. Molecular survey of hard ticks in endemic areas of tick-borne diseases in China. Ticks Tick-Borne Dis. 2013;4:288–96.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Shi M, et al. Meta-transcriptional Detection of Rickettsia canadensis from Ixodes persulcatus in China. 2022.

  128. Takada N, et al. Lyme disease spirochetes in ticks from northeastern China. J Parasitol. 1998. https://doi.org/10.2307/3284712.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Lu M, Qin X. Study on Ixodes holofurrow carrying rickettsia in Yakeshi city, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Dis Surveill. 2021;36:276–9.

    Google Scholar 

  130. Li S, et al. Bacterial community structure and diversity of Ixodes holosulcus in Inner Mongolia. Chin J Vector Biol Control. 2019;30:607–12.

    Google Scholar 

  131. Deng H, et al. Investigation of medical vectors and their pathogens in Manzhouli Port area. Chin J Front Health Quar. 2015;38:263–5.

    Google Scholar 

  132. Zhao Q, et al. Study on compound infection of three tick-borne infectious diseases in vector ticks and mice. Chin J Epidemiol. 2005;01:12–6.

    Google Scholar 

  133. Zhu Z, et al. Preliminary observation and study on perifeeding membrane of Ixodes holosulcus. Chin J Animal Infect Dis. 2002;04:1–4.

    Google Scholar 

  134. Ji C. Investigation on the foci of tick-borne forest encephalitis in Alatanheli area of Bogeda Mountain. Electron J Clin Med Lit. 2017;5:2.

    Google Scholar 

  135. Xu Q. Population ecology and tick-borne pathogens of Ixodes holosulcus. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2015.

    Google Scholar 

  136. Quan, L., et al., Identification of a new chuvirus associated with febrile illness in China. 2020.

  137. Liu M, et al. Preliminary investigation on tick flora in nine provinces. J Chang Med Coll. 2005;04:249–50.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Hao Y, Xu Z, Ma C. Human invasion by the Persian sharp edge tick. Chin J Parasitol Parasitic Dis. 1995;02:63.

    Google Scholar 

  139. Danone D, et al. Experimental study of iodinophenol repellent against periscerus gallinis. Jiangxi J Animal Husb Vet Medi. 2002;02:8.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Yan P. Study on the microbial community of arystick japonicus. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Normal University; 2018.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Gui Z. Genetic diversity analysis of dermacor and identification of rickettsia-carrying species in Inner Mongolia grassland. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia Medical University; 2021.

    Google Scholar 

  142. Chen Y, Wang J. We will comprehensively implement the system of balancing grass and livestock to promote sustained ecological improvement in grasslands. Inner Mong For. 2021;09:4–5.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Duan X. Dynamic changes of typical plant communities and their influencing factors in the transition zone of forest steppe in the Greater Khingan Mountains. Changchun: Northeast Normal University; 2022.

    Google Scholar 

  144. Wang Y. Identification of tick species and isolation of pathogen from Bactrian camel in Alashan, Inner Mongolia. Hohhot: Inner Mongolia Agricultural University; 2020.

    Google Scholar 

  145. Snow K. The life-history of Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicum Koch, 1844 (Ixodoidea, Ixodidae) under laboratory conditions. Parasitology. 1969;59:105–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Apanaskevich DA, Horak IG. The genus Hyalomma. XI. Redescription of all parasitic stages of H. (Euhyalomma) asiaticum (Acari: Ixodidae) and notes on its biology. Exp Appl Acarol. 2010;52:207–20.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Yang X, et al. Projecting the potential distribution of ticks in China under climate and land use change. Int J Parasitol. 2021;51:749–59.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Wang F, et al. Species delimitation of the Dermacentor ticks based on phylogenetic clustering and niche modeling. PeerJ. 2019;7:e6911.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  149. Hu E, et al. Distribution prediction of Hyalomma asiaticum (Acari: Ixodidae) in a Localized Region in Northwestern China. J Parasitol. 2022;108:330–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Ma B, et al. Prediction of suitable area of Ixodes holosulcus in China. Chin J Schistosomiasis Control. 2021;33:169–76.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Zhang R, et al. Land use change and its impact on ecosystem service value in Alxa. Agric Technol. 2022;42:71–5.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

Funding

This work was supported by the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Science and Technology leading talent team: Zoonotic disease prevention and Control Technology innovation team (2022SLJRC0023); Key Technology Project of Inner Mongolia Science and Technology Department (2021GG0171); State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Regulation and Breeding of Grassland Livestock (2020ZD0008); Study on pathogen spectrum, temporal and spatial distribution and transmission features of the important emerging and re-emerging zoonosis in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (U22A20526).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. College of Life Sciences, Inner Mongolia University, Hohhot, 010070, China

    Rui Ma, Chunfu Li, Haoqiang Tian, Yan Zhang, Jian Li & Wei Hu

  2. National Institute of Parasitic Diseases, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology of China Ministry of Health, WHO Collaborating Centre for Tropical Diseases, Joint Research Laboratory of Genetics and Ecology on Parasite-Host Interaction, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200025, China

    Xinyu Feng & Wei Hu

  3. School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 20025, China

    Xinyu Feng

  4. One Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University-The University of Edinburgh, Shanghai, 20025, China

    Xinyu Feng

  5. Basic Medical College, Guangxi Traditional Chinese Medical University, Nanning, 530005, Guangxi, China

    Jian Li

  6. Department of Infectious Diseases, Huashan Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China

    Wei Hu

Authors
  1. Rui Ma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Chunfu Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Haoqiang Tian
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Yan Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Xinyu Feng
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jian Li
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Wei Hu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

XYF and WH conceived the study and contributed the original idea. RM, CFL, HQT, and ZY performed the experiments. RM, JL, and XYF wrote the initial draft of the paper. XYF and WH contributed to the revision of the manuscript, and the final version was reviewed by WH. All authors approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Xinyu Feng, Jian Li or Wei Hu.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

All participants consented to have their data published.

Competing interests

We declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Additional file 1

: Figure S1 Flow diagram of literature search and inclusion.

Additional file 2

: Figure S2 Changes in the potential suitability areas for the four dominant tick species under the near current and 2081–2100.

Additional file 3

: Table S1 Environmental and bioclimatic variables for the four dominant tick species distribution models by MaxEnt.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ma, R., Li, C., Tian, H. et al. The current distribution of tick species in Inner Mongolia and inferring potential suitability areas for dominant tick species based on the MaxEnt model. Parasites Vectors 16, 286 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-023-05870-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-023-05870-6

Keywords

Parasites & Vectors

ISSN: 1756-3305

Contact us